DISCRIMINATION in employment and workplaces — under any labels is a degradation of human spirit and a limitation on individuals’ ability to pursue self-actualization and contribute meaningfully to society. A discriminatory environment produces economic drag: an economy may advance slowly or inefficiently, failing to achieve its potential. As Jörn Svensson observes in A Case Study in Economic Retardation (Economy and History, 2021), structural inequalities diminish both individual motivation and national potential, creating persistent obstacles to growth.
Bangladesh’s gender parity record reflects these systemic challenges. While the country scored 72.2 per cent and ranked 59th globally in the health and education sector according to the World Economic Forum’s 2023 Global Gender Gap Report, participation in manufacturing, agriculture, retail and services remains uneven. These gaps reveal entrenched barriers and hostile environments that discourage women from fully engaging in economic and public life.
Sexual harassment is a particularly insidious form of discrimination, where daily indignities undermine human dignity and social progress. Beyond overt sexual behaviour, harassment encompasses exclusion, belittlement, derogation and intimidation — actions rooted in gender bias and power imbalance rather than sexual intent. The broader category of Gender-Based Discrimination (GBD) captures this spectrum of harms, while the concept of a Sexual Harassment Environment (SHE) highlights the pervasive climate that allows harassment to recur, reinforcing inequality. Recognising SHE emphasises that harassment is systemic, not episodic, and is essential for shaping legal frameworks, organizational policies, and research.
In recent years, more women have joined the labour force, pursuing financial independence and self-empowerment. Yet sexual harassment environment continues to discourage participation, slowing labour-force engagement compared to men. Bangladesh lacks explicit government policies defining sexual harassment, and the outdated Section 509 of the Penal Code (1860) offers minimal enforcement, leaving victims with little recourse.
Sexual harassment environment extends beyond workplaces into public spaces — roads, buses, malls and educational campuses. Harassment through gestures, expressions or innuendo should meet zero tolerance. Public shaming, often depicted in Bangla natak (dramas), can serve as a societal deterrent, signalling collective disapproval and reinforcing norms against harassment.
Framing sexual harassment within GBD and SHE clarifies that addressing discrimination is not only a matter of individual rights but also a societal and economic imperative. Tackling systemic harassment is essential for equity, national potential, and building a more just and productive Bangladesh.
Ìý
Context and cultural nuances
CONTEXT is critical when evaluating harassment. Remarks or behaviours that might seem innocuous — such as telling a woman, ‘You look happy and hearty’ — can feel intrusive or suggestive due to historical and societal gendered experiences. A similar comment to a man is usually perceived as neutral or positive. Thus, the focus is less on literal words than on power dynamics, cultural norms and lived experiences.
Recognizing sexual harassment environment ensures that workplace policies and enforcement mechanisms respond effectively, creating environments where all individuals can participate without fear of bias or intimidation. Understanding harassment through this lens clarifies why Bangladesh continues to face persistent gaps in workforce and economic participation.
Ìý
Women’s participation in Bangladesh
BANGLADESH has made measurable progress in gender equality. According to the 2023 World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Report, the country scored 72.2 percent and ranked 59th globally in gender parity within the health and education sectors. Yet, participation in other key sectors — manufacturing, agriculture, retail, and services—remains uneven. These gaps reflect not only disparities in opportunity but also systemic barriers and hostile environments that discourage women from fully participating in economic and social life. Gender-based discrimination within a persistent sexual harassment environment is among the most insidious of these barriers, as the denial of equality becomes a daily assault on human dignity and social progress.
In recent years, more women have joined the labour force, aspiring to financial independence and self-empowerment. Workplace harassment continues to discourage many from entering or remaining in formal employment. Women’s labour-force participation persists, albeit at a slower pace than men’s. Unfortunately, Bangladesh lacks explicit government policies defining harassment. The outdated Section 509 of the Penal Code (1860) merely states: ‘words and gestures intended to outrage the modesty of the woman are subjected to punishment with a prison sentence that may extend to one year along with fines.’ Enforcement remains minimal, leaving victims with little recourse.
Harassment is not confined to workplaces. It pervades public spaces, including roads, buses, shopping malls, and educational campuses. Facial expressions, body language, caricatures, or innuendos — all forms of gender-based discrimination contributing to a hostile sexual harassment environment — should be met with zero tolerance. Cultural portrayals of public shaming, as frequently depicted in Bangla natak (dramas), serve as social cues that can deter harmful behaviour.
Ìý
Schoolgirls to lawmakers: women driving Bangladesh forward
BANGLADESH has opened job opportunities across nearly all sectors, reflecting social progress and economic diversification. Yesterday’s schoolgirls have grown into high-ranking officials — from civil service to police and military leadership, and from schoolteachers to university educators, including vice-chancellors. Women have advanced in medicine, law, banking and corporate management, demonstrating capabilities in fields once considered male-dominated. Politically, Bangladesh has had two women serve as prime ministers, together holding office for seven terms — a testament to resilience, leadership and enduring influence. Women also play a significant role in parliament, shaping legislation and national policies.
The entertainment industry, particularly short dramas or natak, provides creative expression, generates substantial economic value and fosters cultural vibrancy. These developments underscore how far the nation has come in empowering citizens — especially women — to participate fully in public life, drive economic growth and shape governance. No social or religious prohibitions should hinder progress, provided developments align with decency and family norms. Yet, despite these achievements, gender-based discrimination and hostile sexual harassment environment continue to impede full participation in economic, social, and political life.
Ìý
Psychological and physiological impacts
HARASSMENT inflicts profound psychological and physiological harm. Victims often experience chronic anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder, leading to diminished self-esteem and pervasive feelings of shame and guilt. These burdens manifest physically as elevated blood pressure, sleep disturbances and other stress-related health issues. The cumulative effect disrupts homeostasis, impairing immune function and increasing susceptibility to chronic illnesses.
This dual impact — mental and physical — creates a vicious cycle, where stress worsens health problems and hinders workforce participation. Persistent gender-based discrimination within a hostile sexual harassment environment, often unaddressed by institutional policies, compounds these effects, making it a significant barrier to economic and social well-being.
Ìý
Economic implications
Globally, women’s labour-force participation lags behind men’s. According to the International Monetary Fund, only 47 per cent of women participate in labour markets, compared to 72 per cent of men. Gender gaps are especially pronounced in emerging economies. Narrowing this gap by just 5.9 per cent — through addressing gender-based discrimination and ensuring harassment-free environment — could boost growth by nearly 8 per cent in many developing countries. Low-income economies stand to gain 7.1 per cent GDP growth versus 5.4 per cent in advanced economies. Addressing these gaps also mitigates Covid-19-related losses.
Harassment reduces productivity, forces job exits and imposes reputational and financial costs on firms. A study in the Journal of Business Ethics (February 2023) found that firms with high harassment exposure experienced a 17 per cent decline in stock returns in the following year, alongside reduced profitability and higher labour costs. In short, gender-based discrimination and sexual harassment environment erode both human dignity and corporate value.
Ìý
Labour market constraints in Bangladesh
According to the 2022 Labour Force Survey, out of 800,000 graduates, 336,000 unemployed were women — 19 per cent of women with tertiary education, compared to 12 per cent of men. While women with HSC certificates increasingly participate in rural, agriculture-centric activities, urban jobs remain scarce and competitive. Structural constraints — including family pressure to quit after marriage, lack of childcare, unsafe public transport and workplace harassment — discourage women from formal employment. A hostile sexual harassment environment amplifies these barriers, reducing national productivity and economic potential.
Ìý
Economic logic and the PPF framework
Bangladesh’s economy can be illustrated through the Production Possibilities Frontier (PPF). The solid concave curve represents potential output if all resources are fully employed. Bangladesh’s 2022 GDP of $460.20 billion — the highest ever, a 10.55 per cent increase from 2021 ($416.33 billion) — reflects partial utilisation of human capital.
Ìý
PPF: A Hypothetical Economy with and without SHE
The PPF expands annually as new workers enter the labour force while capital and technology improve. It shrinks only if resources are lost or underutilised — such as skilled workers discouraged from joining due to presence of hostile sexual harassment environment. Point A (inside PPF) represents current GDP; Point B (on PPF) represents potential GDP, including full female labour-force participation, estimated at $470–475 billion. Failure to integrate this labour force risks permanent inward shifts (Point C).
Technological advances complement intellectual labour over physical labour, reducing gender gaps. Globalisation widens opportunities for women, enhancing bargaining power, lowering fertility, boosting human capital and increasing long-run per capita GDP. Skill-biased technological change diminishes gaps, though cultural norms of male dominance may provoke resistance.
Ìý
Global lessons
BANGLADESH is not unique in confronting harassment. Global examples demonstrate how reforms enhance participation and growth. In the United States, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited sex-based discrimination, establishing harassment as a legal violation, and proactive policies improved retention and productivity. In India, the Vishaka case of 1997 led to the POSH Act (2013), mandating Internal Complaints Committees. Scandinavian countries combined occupational safety laws, childcare and parental leave policies, resulting in female labour participation above 75 per cent. Japan’s anti-chikan campaigns have slowly shifted cultural norms, while Latin American initiatives such as women-only public transport in Mexico City and legal protections in Peru and Argentina reduce participation barriers. In Rwanda, post-genocide reforms ensured female representation and workplace protection, fostering stability and growth. These lessons demonstrate that legal reform, accountability, public campaigns, and cultural change must operate together to reduce GBD and SHE, unlocking female economic potential.
Ìý
Islam’s stance on sexual harassment
ISLAM strictly prohibits any act that harms another person’s dignity, safety or honour, and sexual harassment falls under this prohibition. The Qur’an commands both men and women to lower their gaze and guard their private parts (Qur’an 24:30–31), promoting mutual respect and personal boundaries. Any form of coercion, intimidation, or indecency (fahisha) is condemned, and spreading or tolerating indecency is considered sinful (Qur’an 24:19). The prophet Muhammad (pbuh) taught, ‘There should be neither harming nor reciprocating harm’, highlighting the moral duty to protect others from abuse.
Islamic law (fiqh) treats harassment, assault and any unwanted sexual contact as punishable crimes, and scholars agree that the responsibility always lies with the perpetrator — not the victim. Faith calls for safe, respectful environments in homes, workplaces and public spaces. In essence, Islam views sexual harassment as a serious moral and legal offense, violating both human rights and divine commandments.
Ìý
Economic, social and technological dimensions
Gender-based discrimination carries profound economic, social and psychological costs. Fully employing 336,000 female graduates in Bangladesh could contribute $10–15 billion annually, equivalent to 2–3 per cent of GDP. Gender-based discrimination within a hostile sexual harassment environment drives higher turnover, recruitment expenses and reputational losses, demonstrating that gender parity is both a moral and economic imperative.
Beyond economics, gender-based discrimination and sexual harassment affect mental health, erode confidence and increase absenteeism. Workplaces lacking grievance mechanisms cause underperformance or exit from the labour force. Unsafe commuting and family pressures magnify productivity losses. Technological advancement and remote work reduce exposure to gender-based discrimination, enabling greater female contribution, while globalisation expands access to international labour markets, enhancing human capital and intergenerational benefits.
Ìý
Policy roadmap for Bangladesh
BANGLADESH must adopt multi-pronged strategies to address gender-based discrimination and sexual harassment environment effectively. Legal reform should be modelled on POSH in India or Scandinavian systems, ensuring clear definitions, preventive measures and enforcement. Independent redress mechanisms and corporate incentives are essential to encourage proactive organizational action. Safe public transport and mandatory childcare infrastructure reduce structural barriers. Public awareness campaigns, rigorous data collection, and strict enforcement are critical to monitor progress and foster cultural change. Implementing these measures could shift the PPF outward, reflecting full mobilisation of human capital and the reduction of hostile SHE.
Ìý
Conclusion
Gender-based discrimination and sexual harassment environment — whether in workplaces or public spaces — are not merely moral failings; they are critical economic constraints. They diminish capability, reduce productivity, and risk permanent shrinkage of growth potential. Evidence from multiple countries demonstrates that reform, accountability, and cultural change enhance participation and prosperity. For Bangladesh, ignoring harassment risks relegating half of its educated workforce to underutilisation. Conversely, curbing harassment could unleash empowerment, productivity and GDP growth — propelling the nation towards full economic and social potential. In the 21st century, addressing gender-based discrimination and sexual harassment environment is not optional; it is essential for sustainable, inclusive growth.
Ìý
Dr Abdullah A Dewan is a former physicist and nuclear engineer at the Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission and professor emeritus of economics at Eastern Michigan University, USA.
