THE fifteenth amendment of the Bangladesh Constitution mentions, 鈥楾he state shall take steps to protect and develop the unique local culture and tradition of the tribes, minor races, ethnic sects, and communities鈥�. The suffix 鈥榓divasi (indigenous peoples)鈥� is not in the constitution. The 鈥楽mall Ethnic Groups Cultural Institutions Act, 2010 broadly defines the term 鈥榮mall ethnic groups/khudra nreegosthi鈥� and is also aimed at preserving and promoting 鈥榯he cultural heritage, language, religious practices and traditional lifestyle of all ethnic communities living in the hill districts and the plains. The word 鈥榓divasi鈥� is in the act but not in the constitution. In the context of this constitutional and other forms of exclusion, not just of the indigenous community but larger question of inequality, the July mass uprising 2024 evolved keeping the principles of inclusion and pluralism in mind. The cry for an anti-discriminatory and inclusive Bangladesh was at the center of this movement. The question of inclusion in the post-July uprising period quickly became a sore point for the reform process as a number of indigenous activists were attacked on January 15 over omission of a graffiti depicting the inclusive spirit of July uprising from a textboard book cover of the National Curriculum and Textbook Board. The graffiti in question is a call for coexistance between all religion, culture, ethnicities and gender. The graffiti in question is call for coexistance between all religion, culture, ethnicities and gender.This article is not about the 鈥榓divasi debate鈥� that revolves around the larger question of the constitional recogniton of indigous communities, but rather about how indigenous literature is marginalised and othered in the dominant discourse of 鈥榥ational literature (Jatiya Sahittya)鈥�.
The indigenous peoples of Bangladesh are enduring oppression and marginalisation. This marginalisation is everywhere, from the constitution to their agricultural land to their home, from socio-political movements in their villages to art and literature. According to the latest 鈥楥ensus and Household Census 2022,鈥� the size of the indigenous population in the country is 16, 50,159, and there are 50 ethnic groups. The linguistic survey conducted by the International Mother Language Institute in 2018 reported that there are 40 native languages of adivasis in Bangladesh. Among them, 14 adivasi languages, such as Kanda, Kharia, Koda, Saura, Mundari, Kol, Malto, Khumi, Pankhwa, Rengmitcha, Chak, Khiang, Lushai, and Laleng, are endangered.
Generally, the domination of printed literature since the colonial era invisibilised oral literature. In what follows, the printed literature with a recorded political history became 鈥榤ainstream art literature鈥�. Similar stuation prevails in the discourses of national literature in Bangladesh. Despite evidence of oral literary tradition from indigenous communities, in printed literary history, indigenous people have a tenuous existence. From a literary and political point of view, in this article, we want to question the hegemonic discourses of 鈥榥ational literature鈥� of Bangladesh which has completely ignored and excluded the literature of the indigenous peoples. Drawing attention to different examples of indigenous literature (whether it is written in indigenous language or in indigenous languages using Bengali alphabet), we discuss here how they remain oppressed or are always tagged as 鈥榝olk literature鈥� that is historically identified as the 鈥榦ther鈥�.
The literature of the indigenous people is adorned with the diverse feathers of all nations, cannot in any way spread its wings within the marginalisation. Since these communities do not have their own alphabet, many small indigenous communities have to practice literature using Roman or Bengali alphabets. As a result, one cannot fully express their literary emotion in their own unique ways. How much of the indigenous lifestyle has been reflected in the writings of the established writers of Bengali literature? The inclusion of adivasi literature will open a new door of possibilities to both the adivasi communities and the majority Bengali community. In Bangladesh, other than Bengalis, Chakma is the nearest majority, and Marma, Tripura, Mandi and Santals come close.
As many other developed languages and literatures, Chakmas, as many literary scholars have noted, too got ancient literary artefacts. A wonderful creation of the Middle Ages is Gozenlama, authored by Sadhak Shipcharan. Khan (2008) said in the discussion of indigenous literature that the indigenous people of Bangladesh, especially the indigenous poets living in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, have a strong interest in writing in their mother tongue. In most cases these poems or prose are printed in adivasi languages using Bengali script. These poems are about desires, beauty, faces and masks, questions and unanswered pains of contemporary life of indigenous comunities. In Chakma poetry, the manifestations of life鈥檚 accessories are easily noticeable. 鈥楳alayya,鈥� in Chakma is known as a kind of traditional social cooperation for jum cultivation among adivasis, which Mros call 鈥楰urpak-Kurchak鈥�. Other members of the society contribute to an individual鈥檚 Jum field, and the concept often takes centre stage in the literature of these communities.
The folklore of the Chakmas is very rich. They have folk ballads. This folk ballad, or narrative song, is sung to the tune of 鈥榰bogeet,鈥� and the singers of this song are called 鈥楪engkhuli鈥�. The accounts of past heroic deeds, heroic sagas, social systems, customs, rituals, and mythical wars can be found in 鈥楻adhaman-Dhanpudi Pala,鈥� 鈥楥hadigang Chara Pala,鈥� 鈥楰ugidor,鈥� or 鈥楥haramittyu Pala鈥� and 鈥楴ardhan-Narapudipala鈥�. There is Gozenlama, which is a religious hymn, then there are 鈥楾anyabir Pala鈥�, 鈥楥handbir Baromas鈥�, 鈥楰irpabir Baromas,鈥� 鈥楳eyari Baromas,鈥� and 鈥楥hakma Baromasi.鈥� Devapriya Chakma鈥檚 novel 鈥楶hebo鈥� was completely written using the Changma alphabet and language, which was published in 2004 by Pogadang, with a cover by Hapang Tripura Milon. The novel is set against the backdrop of the Logang massacre. 鈥楻annayful鈥� was published in October, 2006 by Moni Swapan Dewan from Dhaka with Hemal Dewan, Sharatjyoti Dewan, Hiran Mitra Chakma and Pallab Chakma as joint editors.This was published as a love letter to the entire practitioner and the devotees of the Jum literature. 鈥楻annya鈥� is a type of flower that blooms on the fallow land after jum cultivation. The editors named the poetry collection Rannyaful and said that we want to write poetry in our own language; we want to read it in our own language. We want to listen to the lullabies from our own mother鈥檚 mouth.
Not only the Chakmas, but all the other marginalised communities have art and literature that reflects a stance against oppression. Tripuras have a historical contribution in the development of Bengali language and literature. Tripura Maharaja Birchandra Manikya鈥檚 three daughters, Ananga Mohini Devi, Girindra Bala Devi, and Mrinalini Devi, practiced literature. The Pankhwa folk literature of the CHT is mainly their oral literature, which has no written form. Various types of fairy tales, legends, anecdotes, rhymes, poems, proverbs, etc., are practiced among the Pankhwas. These folktales highlight the lives of forest people, jum cultivation, hunting tradition, and more.
In 1951, Manjhi Ramdas Tudu Reska wrote 鈥楰herwal Vansha Dharam Puthi鈥� by collecting the religion and stories of Santal society. In the first chapter of the book, he wrote, All the people of our Kherwal clan should try to understand this story. Everyone should listen; everyone should learn. Oraon community from North Bengal that has numerous valuable folktales. Moving beyond the borders of hills-forests-Barind tracts and plain land to the land of the literary movements of the Rakhines in the coastal region, the Rakhine civilisation was established around 3,325 BC on the banks of the Kaladan River in Southeast Asia, an unique literary tradition can be found. If their literature, which is based on the rise and fall of their history, a diverse culture, folklore, reformations, beliefs, and social background, had been attempted to be published, it could have made the world literature richer.
Adivasi community living in Mymensingh, Netrakona, Sherpur, Jamalpur, Tangail, Gazipur area, are mainly the Mandi, Koch, Hajong, Banai, Dalu, Berman, Hadi, Rajbanshi, Lyngam and among them printed literary works are seen more in the Mandi and Hajong community. 鈥楧iggibandi鈥� and 鈥楽heranjingpala鈥� are the two epics that have not yet added to the dominant literary discourse of Bangladesh. An almost irregular publication called 鈥楯anira鈥� is being published from the 鈥楽mall Ethnic Cultural Academy鈥� established in 1977 at Birishiri, Netrakona which began its journey with the promises of showcasing the literary vision of the indigenous peoples, but in reality, the magazine mainly prints some 鈥榮tereotypic colonial鈥� discussions. The content of this magazine is devoid of philosophical and political basis of the indigenous lives in the area.
Among the Adivasis of Sylhet, mainly Meitei Manipuri, Bishnupriya Manipuri, Khasi, Jaintia, Laleng, Mandi, Hajong, Lyngam, Pangal, Tripuri, and the large portion of tea garden indigenous people, have been carrying out a literary movement quite vigorously throughout history. The Laleng or Patra community has the trend of practicing literature in Bengali. The Sylhet-based 鈥楶atra Sampraday Kallyan Parishad鈥� has recently published a few ethnographs and dictionaries on the Laleng ethnicity. Meanwhile, Manipuri literature is considered older than Bengali literature by many literary scholars.
Among the adivasis, there is a trend of writing research articles, prose, memoirs, and discussions. Little magazines and books published in different languages of the hilly regions do not reach the other parts of the country, and no news of Manipuri language, Achik language, or Hajong language or literary practices of Sylhet or Mymensingh region reaches the other part of the country, and the readers of Sylhet or Chittagong Hill Tract have no familiarity with the poetry and stories of different languages of different regions of North Bengal. It suggest that there is absolutely no communication between writers and readers of different languages from different regions of the country. Literature, poetic tradition and prose styles in languages other than Bangla remain unknown to most of the mainstream readers.
Indigenous or multilinguistic cultures are not significantly reflected in mainstream ethos or culture. Many consider indigenous cultures to be simplistic, 鈥榬omantic,鈥� primitive, or 鈥榦ut of date鈥�. The languages of the indigenous peoples are regarded as 鈥榙ialect鈥� or 鈥榬egional language,鈥� and their literature is regarded as 鈥榝olklore鈥�. We need to question such hegemonic colonial categorisation. How the majoritarian community鈥檚 literature, which is Bengali literature, has dominated the discourses of national literature while excluding literary traditions in all other languages. The fact that only three indigenous writers, Probhangsho Tripura, Mrittika Chakma and Shuvasis Sinha, received the 鈥楤angla Academy award鈥� for their literary contribution since the independence of Bangladesh demonstrates such exclusion. In the Bengali imagination of national literature, literature in indigenous languages are left in the margin or invisiblised.
In Mro language, 鈥榃angnim鈥� means cloud. A little magazine named 鈥榃angnim鈥� had a brief life in Bandarban. In the preface of one of the issues of 鈥榃angnim (year 3, issue 1), the editorial board wrote, literary mind is not born for the sake of literature, literary works hope to nurture a civil society, a Mro civil society. The publication was able to spark debates and discussions around indigenous literature, but the organiser struggled and eventually stopped the publication after the 5th issue. The financial burden of bringing a literary magazine in Mro language without some sort of institutional support was difficult. The institutionally supported Bengali literature has created a suffocating situation for literature in other languages to grow. The fate of Wangnim proves this point. The Bengali literature as national literature has, therefore, an oppressive, othering effect on other literary traditions, particularly on literature in indigenous languages.
To fight this marginality, indigenous writers prioritise writing and publishing in their own mother tongue and script. In 1984, Menlay Mro introduced the Mro alphabet and a new religion named 鈥榢rama鈥�. The alphabet is of immense importance for the preservation and development of literary practice and language. It is seen that after the introduction of the Mro alphabet, some Mro writers wrote their books with this new alphabet. Yangan Mro wrote many books in the Mro alphabet and Mro language with his own efforts. Without the use and practice of the alphabet, the language will never reach an advanced level and literature-culture-tradition will not develop. For the development our mother tongue, it is necessary to write literary history in our own alphabet. If the literary history is not practiced in our own alphabet, then the mother tongue will not spread, and gradually one day its own alphabet will disappear. It is time Bangla as the mother tongue of many examines its relationship with indigenous languages in Bangladesh. Towards this end, we need to re-examine the monolithic notion of mother tongue that appears exclusionary and hegemonic.
We need to read and understand the oppressed literature of the indigenous peoples of Bangladesh. The inclusion of indigenous literature would create scope for a pluralistic literary trend to excel. The national literary genre is the literature that should gradually be developed as a conversation between many languages. It is much like an onion layered with layers of cultural pluralism. The July uprising of 2024 has given us an opportunity to reimagine an inclusive Bangladesh that should not escape the literary world.
听
听Pavel Partha is a writer and researcher.
